Xenophobia in Europe. Review of Annual report of European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)
The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) published its Annual report.
According to the table of officially recorded crimes motivated by racism in 12 EC countries (where the corresponding statistics was kept), during the period from 2000 to 2007 only in Czechia the tendency toward reduction of number of racial crimes is observed (by 6,4%) while in other countries the number had grown. At the same time it’s obvious that in various countries collection of statistic data was carried on according to various methods (basing upon number of “crimes”, “incidents”, “reports about crimes”, “complaints”, “delinquencies”); besides, in some countries the statistics was collected starting from 2001 or 2002. Thus, the comparative results are conditional enough. Thus, the number of crimes during the period from 2000 to 2007 increased to the greatest extent in Denmark (by 43,2%); it is followed by Slovakia (36,2%), Ireland (31,3%), Scotland (22,6%), France (20,4%), Austria (11,7%), Belgium (8,4%), Poland (8,2%), Finland (6,7%), England and Wales (4,0%), Germany (3,9%), Sweden (0,8%).
At the same time, somewhat different and more encouraging picture is seen during comparable analysis of available data concerning number of such crimes during recent years – in 2006-2007. Number of crimes motivated by racism increased to the greatest extent in Austria (79,5%); it is followed by Poland (58,7%), Ireland (29,5%), Sweden (9,2%), Scotland (4,2%), England and Wales (3,7%). At the same time, in some countries the number of crimes reduced: Denmark is leading here (63,5%), it is followed by France (23,4%), Czechia (21%), Slovakia (17,6%), Finland (6,7%), Belgium (5,2%), Germany (23,9%).
Only six EC countries collected statistics concerning crimes motivated by anti-Semitism. During the period from 2001 to 2007 the number of crimes of anti-Semites increased to the greatest extent in Austria (105,9%), it is followed by France (47,6%), Great Britain (12,1%), Netherlands (11,7%), Sweden (2%), Germany (0,4%). Thus, during 7 years the number of crimes motivated by anti-Semitism increased to various extents in all the countries. But the tendency seen in 2006-2007 gives much more optimistic picture. While in Austria an abrupt leap of anti-Semitic crimes occurred right during these years, in other five countries the number of such crimes reduced: to the greatest extent in Netherlands (by 53,7%), followed by France (32,4%), Sweden (11,9%), Germany (6,1%), Great Britain (5,6%). But the figures being the evidence of abrupt growth of crimes number in Austria are also rather a result of most negligible number of anti-Semitic incidents during previous years, and they are not so big in absolute expression.
Statistics of crimes motivated by extreme right extremism was kept in four countries. In Germany and Austria number of such crimes during the period of 2000-2007 increased – correspondingly by 9,8% (during 2001-2007) and by 1,2%, and in France and Sweden it decreased – by 17,9% and 1,5% correspondingly.
At the same time, during the period of 2006-2007 number of such crimes increased considerably in Sweden and Austria – by 42,3% and 37,3% correspondingly, and decreased in France and Germany – correspondingly by 17,9% and 2,4%.
For collection of corresponding statistics, proper maintenance of databases in EC countries is necessary. A table showing the quality of such databases is provided in the report (they are divided conditionally into four categories – from very qualitative to its complete absence). According to this table, detailed database concerning the crimes motivated by racism (with descriptions of crimes and criminals, place of violence etc) is maintained in Finland, Sweden and Great Britain. Database recording the incidents and crimes basing upon extreme right extremism is maintained in Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Poland and Slovakia. A limited database recording information about court procedures, when the detailed information is often available just in cases of special requests, and concerning general race discrimination is available in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg. Finally, no official data about racial criminality are available in Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, and Spain. The experts fix the dynamics of development of such database annually – as a result, in 2009 Belgium was transferred from the third category into the second one, Cyprus – from the fourth into the third one and Italy, Malta and Portugal got from the third category into the fourth one being the worst.
A separate table is devoted to ethnic belonging of persons who became the victims of crimes (attacks, threats, insults) during recent 12 months. The cases of violence motivated by racial hatred and cases with its unavailability were recorded separately. More often then the others, the following became the victims of violence: Gypsies and natives of African countries to the South from Sahara (22%, among them 18% - basing upon racism), North-Africans (correspondingly 15% and 9%), Turks (12%, 8%), natives of Central Europe (11%, 7%), Russians (9%, 5%), natives of former Yugoslavia (6%, 3%). Otherwise almost every fourth Gypsy and native of the South of Africa became a victim of any form of crime, and every fifth one – of crime motivated by racism. Correspondingly, every tenth Russian became a victim of crime, and every twentieth one – of crime motivated by racism.
The report authors note the progress in keeping the records of crimes motivated by racism and facts of discrimination in some EC countries. Thus, Sweden, in addition to categories “xenophobia”, “anti-Semitism”, “Islam-phobia”, introduced the categories of crimes with “anti-African-Sweden”, “anti-Gypsy” orientation. The efficient system of investigation of racial crimes is operating in Finland. Racial motifs are taken into account now in investigation of crimes against the personality in Portugal, Greece and Italy. Some changes in legislation of Lithuania and Hungary can be marked. At the same time the report authors note that in Latvia, though corresponding corrections were introduced into legislation, they are not effective in practice.
The Internet plays a special role in dissemination of racial hatred. Thus, in Poland 230 messages with racist and xenophobe content were recorded in 2007. In some countries the combat against this event is beginning: in 2008 the Austrian Federal court sentenced a cyber-criminal motivated by racism to 9 months of imprisonment. At the same time, only 5 EC countries (Cyprus, Denmark, France, Latvia and Lithuania) signed the protocol on combat against such crimes.
Differences in statistic approaches make the analysis of ethnic discrimination in social sphere uneasy but some tendencies can be still seen. Thus, statistic analysis of 2008 showed that in Germany the young people from second generation immigrants have the chances of getting job lower by 15% then the German persons of the same age. Analysis of situation in Estonia shows that, in comparison with ethnic Estonians, state of non-native population is characterized with high unemployment level, unstable job, lower positions, bigger disproportion between educational level and occupied positions.
As for the lawsuits connected with racial crimes and discrimination, just small part of them is examined in courts. Thus, in Ireland only two criminal proceedings were instituted in 2008 against employers who manifested discrimination towards their wage laborers, and in Portugal a single similar case was recorded. In other EC countries the statistics is approximately the same.
During recent years discriminatory notices took place in EC countries, for example in Austria: “Austrians only” or “only German language bearers”; in Denmark the police was informed about three similar notices. In Estonia the Juridical center for human rights called a company which employed the workers whose “native language is Estonian” to account, and in Finland the ombudsman for ethnic minorities examined 33 notices about employment of workers containing requirement of “Finish nationality” and/or “perfect knowledge of Finnish language”. Illegality of such notices was stressed by the decision of the European court.
Many reports came from NGOs and other structures about cases of racism and xenophobia in 2008. Several anti-Polish incidents were recorded in Eastern Germany. It was reported from Austria about discriminatory actions towards Croatians, Turks, Indians, Iranians, and Tunisians – including refusals to service the women in hijabs, humiliations on the part of work colleagues with non-interference on the part of employer, threats and insults in public places. One African suffered from racist humiliations in the military service on the part of other servicemen who sometimes put on the Ku-Klux-Klan smocks. In Belgium a Moroccan was the object of insults for a year without any response on the part of his employer. In Ireland a French of African origin was fired basing upon racism. In Germany a Nigerian suffered the insults; his employer advised him not to make complaints as he “would be expelled back to the forest”.
The interrogations conducted in EC countries provide an obvious idea of the racism level. Thus, in Slovenia 31,5% of 132 interrogated stated they would prefer hiring the citizens of Slovenia or born Slovenians. In Lithuania 40,7% of employers would not hire the Gypsies. In Finland the attitude towards employment of Gypsies varies depending upon economic sector: in construction 65% of employers would use the labor of Gypsies (having corresponding skills) versus 41% in retail trade.
Interrogations of migrants and minority representatives themselves are conducted too. Thus, in Sweden an interrogation of grown-up Africans was published where many of the interrogated complained about discrimination and racism in the labor market. In France more than a third of the interrogated did not inform about the cases of discrimination they felt at their job, first of all on the part of their employers. Most women-migrants interrogated in Germany asserted they felt discrimination in the labor market or in training, up to the cases of rude threatening.
The study conducted in Ireland showed that natives of non-English-speaking countries suffered from much higher discrimination during search of job, and the Nigerians and the Chinese considered themselves the victims of this most of all. According to the study in Great Britain, a third of natives of Asia and 20% of black-skinned managers state the impossibility of overcoming the career threshold due to racial reason. In Belgium most of residents of Turkish or Moroccan origin feel they have fewer chances to get job than native Belgians. After receiving a diploma, the Turks and Moroccans spent almost four months on average for search of job while the native Belgians – three or a little more than two months.
But not all the minority representatives complain about oppressions. Thus, according to interrogation of 2008, Ukrainian migrants in Poland stated they felt no oppressions in general. In Bulgaria just 1% of women-migrants felt themselves the victims of discrimination in the labor market. But in some countries not so “immigrants” are subject to discrimination as the locals: about 60% of Gypsies interrogated in Bulgaria, Czechia, Romania and Slovakia stated they felt discrimination. According to recent reports from Spain, almost every interrogated Gypsy told he faced the discrimination during search of job once at least.
The revealing experiment was conducted in Belgium. Two CVs were submitted to 50 employers being absolutely identical except the item of ethnic origin of the employee. Ethnic Belgians got the job in 60% of cases while representatives of minorities – in 25% of cases.
Ethnic minorities sometimes face the discrimination of religious or cultural character. While in Denmark 9 of 10 employers try to permit the minorities to mark their principal religious holidays and permit women to wear hijabs, and in Sweden this is fixed in legislation, in Slovenia just 34% of 112 interrogated employers were ready to permit their employees to mark their principal religious holidays, and the majority thinks it’s impossible to wear religious clothes at the workplace. In Belgium the leaders of 71% of big companies and of 55% of medium companies think that wearing of hijabs by their women-employees whose functions include contacts with clients would have negative consequences for contacts.
